Systems 101

Computer Science and Computer Systems 101 Series.

Blockchain | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

The Role of DEX Aggregators and Routers in Decentralized Trading
ByEric Ma Mar 17, 2025

In the decentralized finance (DeFi) ecosystem, decentralized exchanges (DEXs) enable users to trade cryptocurrencies without intermediaries. However, with the growing number of DEXs offering varying levels of liquidity, fees, and trading pairs, navigating this landscape efficiently can be challenging. DEX aggregators and routers are tools designed to optimize trading, but they serve different purposes. This…

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Systems 101 | Tutorial

Understanding TPM 2.0 and Platform Configuration Registers (PCRs)
ByEric Ma Dec 14, 2024

The Trusted Platform Module (TPM) 2.0 is a hardware-based security feature designed to enhance the integrity and security of computing systems. It is an international standard defined by the Trusted Computing Group (TCG) and is implemented as a dedicated chip or firmware module on a computer’s motherboard. The TPM provides cryptographic functions, secure storage, and…

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Blockchain | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Private Key Sharding: A Technical Guide
ByEric Ma Sep 14, 2024May 4, 2025

Private key sharding is a technique used to distribute a private key into multiple parts, or “shards,” to enhance security and fault tolerance. This method is particularly useful in scenarios where a single point of failure must be avoided, such as in secure communications, cryptocurrency wallets, and distributed systems. What is Private Key Sharding? Private…

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Blockchain | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

What is BTC SegWit and Its Impact on Transaction Fees
ByEric Ma Sep 14, 2024

Segregated Witness (SegWit) is a protocol upgrade for Bitcoin that enhances its scalability and transaction efficiency. Introduced in 2017, SegWit addresses several limitations of the original Bitcoin protocol, including transaction malleability and block size constraints. Understanding SegWit What is SegWit? SegWit stands for “Segregated Witness,” referring to the separation of signature data from transaction data….

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Blockchain | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Understanding Bitcoin Transaction Structure: Legacy and Witness Versions
ByEric Ma Sep 14, 2024

Bitcoin transactions are the backbone of the Bitcoin network, facilitating the transfer of value. Understanding their structure is essential for anyone interested in blockchain technology. This article delves into the details of both legacy and witness (SegWit) transaction structures. Basics of Bitcoin Transactions A Bitcoin transaction comprises inputs and outputs. Inputs are sources of funds,…

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Blockchain | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Proving Ownership of BTC Multisig Addresses
ByEric Ma Sep 14, 2024Sep 14, 2024

Proving ownership of a Bitcoin (BTC) address is a crucial aspect in various scenarios. The post Proof of Ownership for BTC Addresses introduced the proof for non-multisig addresses. This guide explores how to prove ownership for different multisig BTC address types, including algorithm specifications and step-by-step methods. What is a Multisig Address? A Bitcoin multisig…

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Blockchain | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Proof of Ownership for BTC Addresses: A Detailed Guide
ByEric Ma Sep 14, 2024

Proving ownership of a Bitcoin (BTC) address is a crucial aspect in various scenarios, such as verifying identity in a transaction or demonstrating holdings without revealing private keys. This guide explores how to prove ownership for different BTC address types, including algorithm specifications and step-by-step methods. BTC Address Types P2PKH (Pay-to-Public-Key-Hash) P2SH (Pay-to-Script-Hash) P2WPKH (Pay-to-Witness-Public-Key-Hash)…

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Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

A Comprehensive Guide to PGP: Technical Deep Dive
ByEric Ma Sep 8, 2024Sep 8, 2024

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a robust encryption program that ensures privacy and authentication for data communication. Developed by Phil Zimmermann in 1991, it’s widely used for securing emails, files, and directories. This article explores the technical details of PGP, including its algorithms, key management, and detailed processes for encryption, decryption, and signing. Cryptographic Foundations…

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Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Linear Consistency Model for Computer Systems
ByEric Ma Sep 6, 2024

Linear consistency models are crucial in ensuring reliability and coherence in distributed computer systems. These models help manage how systems handle data and operations across multiple nodes, ensuring consistency without sacrificing performance. What is a Linear Consistency Model? In distributed computing, a linear consistency model ensures that operations on distributed data appear as if they…

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Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Understanding Cloud Storage Consistency Models
ByEric Ma Sep 6, 2024

Cloud storage systems utilize various consistency models to balance performance, availability, and data accuracy. This article explores these models, their trade-offs, and examples of systems using them. We’ll also discuss the CAP theorem and its implications. Consistency Models Strong Consistency Definition: Guarantees that any read operation returns the most recent write for a given piece…

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Computing systems | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Comparing Paxos and Raft
ByEric Ma Sep 6, 2024

Paxos and Raft are both consensus algorithms used to ensure consistency in distributed systems. While they solve similar problems, they have different approaches and design philosophies. Characteristics Paxos Roles: Proposers, Acceptors, Learners. Phases: Two main phases (Prepare/Promise and Propose/Accept). Leader Election: Not explicitly defined, often implemented using Multi-Paxos to handle multiple proposals efficiently. Use Cases:…

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Computing systems | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Understanding the Paxos Consensus Algorithm
ByEric Ma Sep 6, 2024

The Paxos consensus algorithm is a fundamental concept in distributed computing that ensures a group of distributed systems can agree on a single value, even in the presence of failures. Developed by Leslie Lamport, Paxos is widely used in systems where consistency and fault tolerance are critical, such as databases and distributed ledgers. Consensus Problem…

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Computing systems | Systems | Systems 101 | Tutorial

Understanding the Raft Consensus Protocol
ByEric Ma Aug 24, 2024Aug 24, 2024

The Raft consensus protocol is a distributed consensus algorithm designed to be more understandable than other consensus algorithms like Paxos. It ensures that a cluster of servers can agree on the state of a system even in the presence of failures. Key Concepts Raft divides the consensus problem into three relatively independent subproblems: Leader Election:…

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Systems 101

Multisig 101
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023

Multisig, short for “multisignature,” is a cryptographic mechanism that requires multiple signatures to authorize and execute a transaction. What is Multisig Multisig ensures that multiple parties must collaborate and approve a transaction before it can be deemed valid. It provides an additional layer of security requiring multiple parties’ signatures to spend or transfer the crypto…

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Systems 101

Sybil Attack 101
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Sep 16, 2023

Distributed systems, such as peer-to-peer networks, , and other decentralized platforms, have become increasingly popular due to their potential to offer more robust, scalable, and secure solutions. However, these systems face unique challenges and vulnerabilities, one of which is the Sybil attack. Named after the psychiatric case study “Sybil,” in which a person exhibits multiple…

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Systems 101

Byzantine Faults 101
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Sep 16, 2023

Distributed systems are becoming increasingly important in various applications, such as cloud computing, , and peer-to-peer networks. One of the challenges in designing robust distributed systems is dealing with Byzantine faults, a type of fault that can be particularly difficult to detect and handle. Byzantine faults, named after the Byzantine Generals’ Problem, involve components of…

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Systems 101

WebDAV 101
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023

WebDAV (Web Distributed Authoring and Versioning) is an extension of the HTTP/1.1 protocol, which enables users to create, modify, and delete files on remote web servers. This protocol provides a standardized way for users to collaboratively edit and manage files on the web, much like a remote file system. WebDAV Features WebDAV introduces several features…

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Systems 101

Consensus Algorithm 101
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Sep 16, 2023

Consensus algorithms play a crucial role in the functioning of decentralized networks, such as blockchain-based systems. They help maintain the integrity, security, and reliability of these networks by ensuring that all participants agree on the state of the system. In this post, we will explore the concept of consensus algorithms, their importance, and some of…

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Systems 101

Double-Spending 101
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Sep 16, 2023

Double-spending is a critical issue that any digital currency must address to ensure its viability and security. In this post, we’ll explore the concept of double-spending, the problems it poses, and how blockchain technology overcomes these challenges. What is Double-Spending? Double-spending occurs when a user spends the same digital currency unit more than once. In…

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Systems 101

51% Attack 101
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Jan 3, 2024

One of the most significant threats to public blockchain networks is a 51% attack, where a single entity gains control over the majority of the network’s mining power. In this blog post, we will discuss the concept of a 51% attack, its potential consequences, and measures to prevent it. What is a 51% Attack? A…

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