Network

Systems

Cryptocurrency Fundamentals: A Technical Overview
ByEric Ma Jan 15, 2025Apr 11, 2026

Cryptocurrency is a digital currency secured through cryptography and typically operating on decentralized blockchain networks. Unlike government-issued fiat currencies, cryptocurrencies derive their security and validation from distributed consensus mechanisms rather than central authorities. From Speculation to Real-World Infrastructure Early cryptocurrency adoption was primarily speculative. By 2026, the market has matured into genuine utility across multiple…

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Systems

Blockchain Forks and Chain Reorganizations Explained
ByEric Ma Dec 14, 2024Apr 11, 2026

In decentralized networks like Bitcoin and Ethereum, temporary forks are an inevitable part of consensus. They happen when two miners or validators produce valid blocks at nearly the same time. The sequence looks like this: Simultaneous Discovery: Miner A and Miner B both find a valid Block 100 independently Network Propagation: Some nodes receive Miner…

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Systems

Bitcoin SegWit: How It Reduces Transaction Fees
ByEric Ma Sep 14, 2024Apr 11, 2026

Segregated Witness (SegWit) is a Bitcoin protocol upgrade activated in August 2017 that restructured how transaction data is encoded and validated. It’s foundational to modern Bitcoin usage and essential for understanding current fee dynamics and layer 2 scaling. How SegWit Works Bitcoin transactions contain two main components: the transaction structure itself and the cryptographic signatures…

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Systems

Bitcoin Transaction Formats: Legacy vs. SegWit Explained
ByEric Ma Sep 14, 2024Apr 11, 2026

Every Bitcoin transaction consists of two main components: Inputs (UTXOs): Unspent Transaction Outputs from previous transactions that you’re now spending. These are references to outputs you received earlier. Think of them as specific bills from your wallet you’re handing over. Outputs: The destinations and amounts for the Bitcoin. This includes the recipient’s address and the…

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Systems

Consistency Models in Distributed Systems
ByEric Ma Sep 6, 2024Apr 11, 2026

Linear consistency (also called linearizability) is a formal correctness condition for concurrent systems. It guarantees that all operations appear to execute atomically in some sequential order, with each operation taking effect instantaneously between its invocation and response. In practical terms: once an operation completes and a client receives acknowledgment, every subsequent operation sees the effects…

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Systems

Cloud Storage Consistency Models Explained
ByEric Ma Sep 6, 2024Apr 11, 2026

Cloud storage systems face a fundamental trade-off: you can’t have everything at once. The consistency model you choose directly impacts latency, availability, and how complex your application logic needs to be. Here’s what you actually need to know to pick the right one. Strong Consistency Guarantees that any read returns the most recent write. After…

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Linux

Understanding Paxos: Distributed Consensus Made Clear
ByEric Ma Sep 6, 2024Apr 11, 2026

Paxos is a fundamental consensus algorithm for distributed systems that guarantees agreement on a single value even when nodes fail or messages are delayed. Developed by Leslie Lamport in 1998, it remains a cornerstone for building fault-tolerant distributed systems where strong consistency is required. The Core Problem In a distributed system, you need multiple independent…

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Linux

Understanding the Raft Consensus Protocol
ByEric Ma Aug 24, 2024Apr 11, 2026

Raft is a consensus algorithm designed to be more understandable than alternatives like Paxos. It ensures a cluster of servers can agree on system state even when some nodes fail. The core insight is breaking consensus into independent, manageable subproblems rather than treating it as one complex whole. Core Subproblems Raft splits consensus into three…

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Systems 101

Understanding Multisig Wallets
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

Multisig (multisignature) is a cryptographic mechanism that requires multiple private keys to authorize a blockchain transaction. Think of it as a vault requiring two or more keys to open — no single key holder can move funds alone. How It Works A multisig wallet uses an m-of-n formula, where m is the number of signatures…

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Systems 101

Understanding Sybil Attacks: A Technical Guide
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

A Sybil attack occurs when a single adversary creates many fake identities or nodes to gain disproportionate influence over a network. The name comes from the book and film “Sybil,” about a woman with dissociative identity disorder. In networking and distributed systems, it describes the same concept: one actor pretending to be many. Think of…

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Systems 101

Understanding Byzantine Fault Tolerance
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

A Byzantine Fault occurs when a component in a distributed system behaves unpredictably or maliciously—sending contradictory information to different parts of the system, corrupting data, or deviating entirely from the protocol. The result is potential inconsistency across the network, making consensus impossible without proper safeguards. The term originates from the Byzantine Generals Problem, a thought…

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Systems 101

WebDAV Basics: File Sharing Over HTTP
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

WebDAV (Web-based Distributed Authoring and Versioning) is an HTTP extension that lets you manage files on remote servers over the web. It’s built on HTTP/1.1, so it works through standard web infrastructure—firewalls, proxies, load balancers—without special configuration. Think of it as a bridge between simple HTTP file serving and full-featured version control. You get file…

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Systems 101

Understanding Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

In distributed systems like blockchains, consensus is the mechanism by which all nodes agree on a single version of the ledger state. Without it, a decentralized network falls apart—you’d have conflicting transaction histories, double-spending, and no way to determine which version is authoritative. Consensus algorithms solve this by providing cryptographic or economic guarantees that make…

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Systems 101

Understanding Double-Spending Attacks in Blockchain
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

Double-spending is the fundamental vulnerability of digital currency: unlike physical cash, digital information can be copied. If you send me a digital file, I have it and you still have it. Money can’t work that way. Without a mechanism to prevent spending the same unit twice, the entire system collapses into worthlessness. Blockchains exist, at…

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Systems 101

Understanding 51% Attacks in Blockchain
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

A 51% attack happens when an entity or coalition controls more than 50% of a blockchain network’s total hash rate (in Proof-of-Work systems) or stake (in Proof-of-Stake systems). With this majority control, the attacker can: Reverse recent transactions — spend coins, then revert the transaction to regain them Block legitimate transactions — prevent certain addresses…

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Systems 101

Understanding Proof of Work: A Technical Guide
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

Proof of Work is the consensus mechanism that secures Bitcoin and a handful of other major blockchain networks. Introduced by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2009, it requires network participants (miners) to solve computationally expensive cryptographic puzzles. The first miner to solve the puzzle earns the right to add the next block of transactions and receives a…

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Systems 101

Understanding Proof of Stake: A Beginner’s Guide
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

Proof of Stake is a consensus mechanism that secures blockchain networks by having validators lock up cryptocurrency as collateral. Instead of the energy-intensive mining required by Proof of Work, PoS creates economic incentives: validators earn rewards for honest participation, and lose staked funds if they misbehave or go offline. This “slashing” mechanism makes attacking the…

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Systems 101

Getting Started With Ethereum: A Developer’s Guide
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

Ethereum is a decentralized, open-source blockchain platform enabling developers to build and deploy smart contracts and decentralized applications (dApps). Launched in 2015 by Vitalik Buterin, it functions as a global computational network—code executes exactly as programmed without downtime, censorship, or third-party interference. Key Milestones 2013: Vitalik Buterin publishes the Ethereum Whitepaper 2014: Public crowdsale raises…

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Systems 101

CalDAV and CardDAV: A Developer’s Guide
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

CalDAV and CardDAV are open, internet-based standards for syncing calendar and contact data across different devices and services. They’re built on WebDAV and the iCalendar/vCard formats, making them vendor-agnostic and suitable for both personal deployments and enterprise environments. What CalDAV Does CalDAV handles calendar synchronization—events, tasks, reminders, and availability data. Add an event on your…

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Systems 101

Building Decentralized Systems: Core Concepts and Design Patterns
ByEthan Ainsworth Sep 16, 2023Apr 11, 2026

Decentralization is the transfer of control and decision-making from a centralized entity—typically a company, government, or institution—to a distributed network of participants. In practice, this means no single actor can unilaterally control the system, change its rules, or shut it down. The Three Dimensions of Decentralization When evaluating whether a system is actually decentralized, consider…

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